Knowledge Creation in Democratic Government.

3.2.2 Knowledge Creation in Democratic Governance The principles, tasks, and responsibilities of democratic governance emerged over time and became operational in developed countries over the last two centuries—and since the middle of the last century in developing countries. This process is far from being completed and because of ongoing changes in a globalized world, probably never will be. This democratization process was paralleled by ongoing changes and growing expectations of citizen preferences for public services and public goods, which are becoming increasingly expensive and complicated to deliver (see chapter 2). As previously described, the understanding of today’s complex democratic governance agenda can be categorized into three major expectations (see subsections 2.1.1 and 3.1.1): (1) to adopt and follow a comprehensive range of democratic principles (policy), (2) to determine and deliver a set of public services and public goods to satisfy their constituency (politics), and (3) to shape and manage the appropriate governmental institutions to deliver those goods and services (polity). To understand the consistency as well as the process of its creation, knowledge in democratic governance can be described within the framework of the following four dimensions (see Table 3): Democratic governance depends to a high degree on citizens’preferences, which are shaped by cultural, economic, historical, and religious backgrounds. As a consequence, in regard to almost any policy issue, there are multiple tacit and explicit viewpoints that need to be taken into account to make sound and citizen-oriented decisions. Knowledge in democratic governance is therefore very complex, and governments are expected to consider a high number of different and often contradicting perspectives in their respective decision-making process. In a globalized world, knowledge about numerous policy issues such as environment, health, transportation, etc. is developed and spread all over the world. To deliver state-of-the-art knowledge to the public, governments are under pressure to incorporate a high volume of new information and knowledge in their policy decision-making processes. Individual and local circumstances and preferences have to be taken into account in the governmental decision-making process. Thus, contextual and situational criteria in policy making are becoming more important, whereas normative and universal approaches, which are relevant in a larger scope, are losing reach and relevance in democratic governance settings. Thanks to today’s elaborate information technology, citizens are better informed than ever about research and achievements in issues relevant to policy. Governments therefore are being pressured to acquire and integrate the latest know-how into their policy-making process. To meet citizens’expectations, governments conduct an ongoing process of replacing and changing existing knowledge with the latest available knowledge, which results in a fast turnover of knowledge in democratic governance. As Tables 2 and 3 show, knowledge in democratic governance and the ideal type of knowledge feature opposites on any of the four dimensions. However, because the functionality of the knowledge cycle is based on the consistency of the ideal type of knowledge, it might not be applicable for knowledge in democratic governance. There is a legitimate concern that the elaborate knowledge cycle, with its systematic process of information collection, transformation, and dissemination (see subsection 3.2.1), is too time consuming and in many ways nonfunctional to deliver high-quality and policy-relevant knowledge in democratic governance.12 Among the deficiencies is the fact that the ideal type knowledge cycle focuses on the collection of universal information without attaching any situative meaning to it. However, the creation of knowledge in democratic governance requires the consideration of as much explicit and tacit knowledge related to a specific issue as is possible. As a consequence, all potential perspectives represented through the respective knowledge holder have to be included in the knowledge collection process. The broad inclusion of all viewpoints related to a select set of knowledge leads inevitably toward an elusive volume of both explicit and tacit knowledge that has to be considered in the knowledge creation process. It is difficult for a single or a group of knowledge holders to conceptualize and oversee such a high quantity of knowledge. Knowledge in democratic governance is situational and cannot be generalized or devolved into other political circumstances. This implies that the created knowledge regarding a specific issue has value only for the particular situation, and the process of knowledge creation has to be repeated whenever the situation changes. Knowledge creation is therefore no longer a singular process, but rather a multi-turn process. Last, the half-life of knowledge in democratic governance is comparatively short and stands in contrast with the rather long-lasting ideal type process of knowledge creation. There is concern that knowledge produced in this model is outdated and not applicable once it reaches the target audience and therefore ends up being inappropriate and unreliable for decision making in policy matters. Considering these weaknesses, the ideal type model of knowledge creation has to be redesigned for democratic governance to deliver appropriate knowledge (see Figure 3). To become relevant, the process of knowledge creation has to include all existing explicit and tacit perspectives regarding a specific policy issue, no matter how complex and voluminous the knowledge may be. The new model has to be responsive to situational circumstances, which may lead to frequent repetitions of the process; and finally, it has to take into account the short-term value of knowledge in democratic governance, which implies a considerable speed-up of the knowledge creation process. Figure 3 Knowledge Creation in Democratic Governance This revised model of knowledge creation in democratic governance (see Figure 3) merges the original steps of knowledge collection, config-uration, and dissemination into a simultaneous one-time exercise with no more distinction between social and abstract reality.13 Knowledge production and its subsequent application become a real-time process, in which all individuals who represent a relevant perspective about a particular policy issue share their latest experiences. In such a process, there is no distinction between observed and observing subjects anymore. Everybody involved in the process is at the same time a knowledge holder and a knowledge recipient alike. This kind of personalized knowledge is characterized by the meaning the knowledge holder gives it. It has therefore the same value as processed information. Because it is shared and expressed by individuals in a narrative and spontaneous manner, its articulation includes gestures and emotions and therefore reflects explicit as well as tacit knowledge aspects. Such knowledge represents probably the most accurate content in regard to a given subject in a given time and place. Once it is raised, it gets instant validation by the individuals engaged in the knowledge creation cycle. This has a positive effect on the quantity of knowledge, because irrelevant knowledge gets eliminated right away. Furthermore, the volume of knowledge will not become overwhelming in such an approach, because the individuals involved are their own masters and therefore will not voluntarily take on more knowledge than they can handle. This kind of developed knowledge is also considered the most accurate and policy-relevant know-how. It is important to keep in mind that its reach is situational and applicable only in a given context. What may be the state-of-the-art knowledge in one political setting may be inaccurate or even counterproductive in another. Furthermore, the half-life of the knowledge at stake can be very short and needs to be replaced, depending on the political, social, and technical changes in a governmental environment. Because such changes are becoming routine, it is safe to say that this cycle of knowledge production is an ongoing iterative process. Whenever new democratic governance knowledge appears to lose its relevance because of new political circumstances or new priority setting, the process of knowledge creation or definition has to be relaunched. This fast and iterative process of knowledge creation is called a multi-turn process and is illustrated as a

3.2.2 Knowledge Creation in Democratic Governance The principles, tasks, and responsibilities of democratic governance emerged over time and became operational in developed countries over the last two centuries—and since the middle of the last century in developing countries. This process is far from being completed and because of ongoing changes in a globalized world, probably never will be. This democratization process was paralleled by ongoing changes and growing expectations of citizen preferences for public services and public goods, which are becoming increasingly expensive and complicated to deliver (see chapter 2). As previously described, the understanding of today’s complex democratic governance agenda can be categorized into three major expectations (see subsections 2.1.1 and 3.1.1): (1) to adopt and follow a comprehensive range of democratic principles (policy), (2) to determine and deliver a set of public services and public goods to satisfy their constituency (politics), and (3) to shape and manage the appropriate governmental institutions to deliver those goods and services (polity). To understand the consistency as well as the process of its creation, knowledge in democratic governance can be described within the framework of the following four dimensions (see Table 3): Democratic governance depends to a high degree on citizens’preferences, which are shaped by cultural, economic, historical, and religious backgrounds. As a consequence, in regard to almost any policy issue, there are multiple tacit and explicit viewpoints that need to be taken into account to make sound and citizen-oriented decisions. Knowledge in democratic governance is therefore very complex, and governments are expected to consider a high number of different and often contradicting perspectives in their respective decision-making process. In a globalized world, knowledge about numerous policy issues such as environment, health, transportation, etc. is developed and spread all over the world. To deliver state-of-the-art knowledge to the public, governments are under pressure to incorporate a high volume of new information and knowledge in their policy decision-making processes. Individual and local circumstances and preferences have to be taken into account in the governmental decision-making process. Thus, contextual and situational criteria in policy making are becoming more important, whereas normative and universal approaches, which are relevant in a larger scope, are losing reach and relevance in democratic governance settings. Thanks to today’s elaborate information technology, citizens are better informed than ever about research and achievements in issues relevant to policy. Governments therefore are being pressured to acquire and integrate the latest know-how into their policy-making process. To meet citizens’expectations, governments conduct an ongoing process of replacing and changing existing knowledge with the latest available knowledge, which results in a fast turnover of knowledge in democratic governance. As Tables 2 and 3 show, knowledge in democratic governance and the ideal type of knowledge feature opposites on any of the four dimensions. However, because the functionality of the knowledge cycle is based on the consistency of the ideal type of knowledge, it might not be applicable for knowledge in democratic governance. There is a legitimate concern that the elaborate knowledge cycle, with its systematic process of information collection, transformation, and dissemination (see subsection 3.2.1), is too time consuming and in many ways nonfunctional to deliver high-quality and policy-relevant knowledge in democratic governance.12 Among the deficiencies is the fact that the ideal type knowledge cycle focuses on the collection of universal information without attaching any situative meaning to it. However, the creation of knowledge in democratic governance requires the consideration of as much explicit and tacit knowledge related to a specific issue as is possible. As a consequence, all potential perspectives represented through the respective knowledge holder have to be included in the knowledge collection process. The broad inclusion of all viewpoints related to a select set of knowledge leads inevitably toward an elusive volume of both explicit and tacit knowledge that has to be considered in the knowledge creation process. It is difficult for a single or a group of knowledge holders to conceptualize and oversee such a high quantity of knowledge. Knowledge in democratic governance is situational and cannot be generalized or devolved into other political circumstances. This implies that the created knowledge regarding a specific issue has value only for the particular situation, and the process of knowledge creation has to be repeated whenever the situation changes. Knowledge creation is therefore no longer a singular process, but rather a multi-turn process. Last, the half-life of knowledge in democratic governance is comparatively short and stands in contrast with the rather long-lasting ideal type process of knowledge creation. There is concern that knowledge produced in this model is outdated and not applicable once it reaches the target audience and therefore ends up being inappropriate and unreliable for decision making in policy matters. Considering these weaknesses, the ideal type model of knowledge creation has to be redesigned for democratic governance to deliver appropriate knowledge (see Figure 3). To become relevant, the process of knowledge creation has to include all existing explicit and tacit perspectives regarding a specific policy issue, no matter how complex and voluminous the knowledge may be. The new model has to be responsive to situational circumstances, which may lead to frequent repetitions of the process; and finally, it has to take into account the short-term value of knowledge in democratic governance, which implies a considerable speed-up of the knowledge creation process. Figure 3 Knowledge Creation in Democratic Governance This revised model of knowledge creation in democratic governance (see Figure 3) merges the original steps of knowledge collection, config-uration, and dissemination into a simultaneous one-time exercise with no more distinction between social and abstract reality.13 Knowledge production and its subsequent application become a real-time process, in which all individuals who represent a relevant perspective about a particular policy issue share their latest experiences. In such a process, there is no distinction between observed and observing subjects anymore. Everybody involved in the process is at the same time a knowledge holder and a knowledge recipient alike. This kind of personalized knowledge is characterized by the meaning the knowledge holder gives it. It has therefore the same value as processed information. Because it is shared and expressed by individuals in a narrative and spontaneous manner, its articulation includes gestures and emotions and therefore reflects explicit as well as tacit knowledge aspects. Such knowledge represents probably the most accurate content in regard to a given subject in a given time and place. Once it is raised, it gets instant validation by the individuals engaged in the knowledge creation cycle. This has a positive effect on the quantity of knowledge, because irrelevant knowledge gets eliminated right away. Furthermore, the volume of knowledge will not become overwhelming in such an approach, because the individuals involved are their own masters and therefore will not voluntarily take on more knowledge than they can handle. This kind of developed knowledge is also considered the most accurate and policy-relevant know-how. It is important to keep in mind that its reach is situational and applicable only in a given context. What may be the state-of-the-art knowledge in one political setting may be inaccurate or even counterproductive in another. Furthermore, the half-life of the knowledge at stake can be very short and needs to be replaced, depending on the political, social, and technical changes in a governmental environment. Because such changes are becoming routine, it is safe to say that this cycle of knowledge production is an ongoing iterative process. Whenever new democratic governance knowledge appears to lose its relevance because of new political circumstances or new priority setting, the process of knowledge creation or definition has to be relaunched. This fast and iterative process of knowledge creation is called a multi-turn process and is illustrated as a